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\section*{high performance distributed ledger}

Bitcoin with only about 8 transaction per second (TPS) and also big latency times (for final confirmations) is not very suitable for most [[blockchain]] applications. Similarly with most early generation distributed ledgers. Important things for performance include also the efficiency of [[virtual machine]] employed (trend is that the newest projects go toward versions of [[WebAssembly]] VM).

Faster and even scalable solutions are now in works. We first describe improvements on Bitcoin and Ethernet networks in the form of lightning and plasma networks on top of those, and then various projects which claim to be scalable, ``3rd generation'' etc. Essential improvements are various algorithms trying to go beyond linearity of classical blockchain projects, especially those relying on DAGs (directed acyclic graphs) and on so called sharding. As far as consensus algorithms there are scalability improvements with many new algorithms, while PoW is in a way most secure (for public blockchains).

While mining is computationally intensive it is considered that the optimizations with use of GPU and ASIC hardware are bad forces of centralization (not to mention unhealthy and energy consuming chase for success with single purpose hardware). It is considered better to use computational resources for more useful work like validation of smart contracts, security of computation, cryptographic tools for privacy protection and so on. With FPGA the situation is a little better, and some FPGA are claimed to be useful for smart contract processing and alike, see \href{https://www.embedded.com/electronics-blogs/say-what-/4461708/FPGA-based-frameworks-speed-blockchain-processing}{here} there are also Chaincode [[virtual machine]]-specific ASICs by \href{https://accelor.io}{accelor.io}.

\hypertarget{lightning_network}{}\subsubsection*{{Lightning network}}\label{lightning_network}

Bitcoin solves some of the problems with so called lightning network on top of it, which makes temporary transactions with lots of intermediate transfers only off chain and only small footprint on the main chain, ensuring small price of transactions.

\begin{itemize}%
\item \href{https://lightning.network}{lightning.network}
\item Joseph Poon, Tadge Dryja, \emph{Lightning Network}, \href{https://lightning.network/
lightning-network-paper.pdf}{pdf} Mar 2015.
\item A van Wirdum \emph{Understanding the lightning network \href{https://bitcoinmagazine.com/articles/understanding-the-lightning-network-part-building-a-bidirectional-payment-channel-1464710791}{1} \href{https://bitcoinmagazine.com/articles/understanding-the-lightning-network-part-creating-the-network-1465326903}{2}}
\item Amazon using lightning network for e-commerce, April 2019 \href{https://www.coindesk.com/you-can-now-shop-with-bitcoin-on-amazon-using-lightning}{news}

\end{itemize}
\hypertarget{ethernet_improvements_and_plasma}{}\subsubsection*{{Ethernet improvements and plasma}}\label{ethernet_improvements_and_plasma}

Ethernet recognizes the same problem as Bitcoin, but has significant plans of substantial upgrades of its Mainnet, namely the new Casper protocol, plans for deployment of [[WebAssembly]] virtual machine and sharding which, according to Buterin, could together bring million TPS when all employed as planned.

In addition, there is an analogue algorithm to lightning network targeted to Ethereum, with substantial new ideas in the algorithm, called plasma network.

\begin{itemize}%
\item Joseph Poon, Vitalik Buterin, \emph{Plasma: scalable autonomous smart contracts} \href{https://www.plasma.io/plasma.pdf}{pdf} draft whitepaper

\end{itemize}
There are several realizations of plasma, mostly used being the Loom network.

\hypertarget{projects_based_on_dags}{}\subsubsection*{{Projects based on DAGs}}\label{projects_based_on_dags}

There are several major algorithms. Several projects are based on ``hashgraph'' paper

\begin{itemize}%
\item Leemon Baird, \emph{The Swirlds hashgraph consensus algorithm: fair, fast, byzantine fault tolerance}, \href{https://www.swirlds.com/downloads/SWIRLDS-TR-2016-01.pdf}{pdf} (May 2016); \emph{Hashgraph consensus: detailed examples} \href{https://www.swirlds.com/downloads/SWIRLDS-TR-2016-02.pdf}{pdf}; \emph{Overview of Swirlds Hashgraph: An Introduction To The Hashgraph (SDK Available Now)} \href{https://steemit.com/technology/@swirlds/overview-of-swirlds-hashgraph-an-introduction-to-the-hashgraph-sdk-available-now}{online}

\end{itemize}
including \href{https://www.hedera.com/whitepaper}{Hedera} which claims 50000 to 500000 TPS tested,

\begin{itemize}%
\item Hedera Hashgraph whitepaper \href{https://www.hedera.com/hh-whitepaper-v1.5-190219.pdf}{pdf}; intro to whitepaper \href{https://www.hedera.com/whitepaper}{web};

\end{itemize}
then so called Consensus project etc.

Somewhat similar but with a new innovative algorithm is \href{https://www.tolar.io}{Tolar Hashnet}, see whitepaper \href{https://www.tolar.io/static/media/Whitepaper-Tolar.2f13a40e.pdf}{pdf} with around 150000 TPS achieved on testnet and low power consumption.

Another kind of scalable algorithms using DAGs is the tangle blockchain (of the \href{https://www.iota.org}{iota} project)

\begin{itemize}%
\item Serguei Popov, \emph{The tangle} \href{https://www.iotatoken.com/IOTA_Whitepaper.pdf}{pdf}, 2016

\end{itemize}
\hypertarget{telegram_open_network}{}\subsubsection*{{Telegram Open Network}}\label{telegram_open_network}

\href{https://telegram.org}{Telegram} (see \href{https://telegram.org/faq}{FAQ} and \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(messaging_service}{wikipedia}) is developing Telegram Open Network (TON) centered around a new generation blockchain project. Besides the blockchain and user interfaces, including on Telegram, it will contain analogues of other parts of the internet structure including TON proxy, TON DNS and TON storage. The blockchain uses delegated proof of stake with a number of innovations including infinite sharding paradigm and instant hypercube rooting. The whitepaper predicts that the platform will be able to support millions of TPS (private access to testnet allegedly given in April 2019). For more details see [[Telegram Open Network]] in this wiki and original

\begin{itemize}%
\item TON whitepaper, 23 page \href{https://cdn.crowdfundinsider.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/TON-White-Paper-Telegram-ICO.pdf}{pdf}, mirrors \href{https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ucUeKg_NiR8RxNAonb8Q55jZha03WC0O/view}{pdf} \href{https://icorating.com/upload/whitepaper/gNQ7e9z3lCGi519Wz8mmC0Kg8aA0goeZKAQ802vo.pdf}{pdf}
\item [[nlab:Nikolai Durov]]`s 132-page technical overview \emph{Telegram Open Network}, Dec 2017 \href{https://toncoin.tech/TON-official-whitepaper.pdf}{pdf}, mirror \href{https://www.kriptovaluta.hr/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/TON-Technology.pdf}{pdf}; \emph{Telegram Open Network Blockchain}, Sep 2018, 121 pp. \href{https://www.docdroid.net/qY4sQEv/telegram-open-network-blockchain-september-5-2018.pdf}{pdf}; \emph{Telegram Open Network Virtual Machine}, Sep. 2018, 148 pp. \href{https://www.docdroid.net/R3vEKBY/telegram-open-network-virtual-machine-september-5-2018.pdf}{pdf}

\end{itemize}
\hypertarget{redbelly}{}\subsubsection*{{RedBelly}}\label{redbelly}

Australian academic \href{https://redbellyblockchain.io}{RedBelly} blockchain (also referred as CSIRO) has confirmed 40000 TPS with Amazon platform worldwide testing. Since mid 2017 it had local tests which could achieve up to 400000 but with all nodes in the same location; see the paper about various performance experiments (the largest performance experiment, with measuring various parameters, with up to 1000 nodes in 10 countries!),

\begin{itemize}%
\item Concurrent Systems Research Group, University of Sydney, Data61-CSIRO, \emph{The Red Belly Blockchain Experiments}, \href{https://redbellyblockchain.io/papers/redbellyblockchain-experiments.pdf}{pdf}

\end{itemize}
and selection of \href{https://redbellyblockchain.io/Press.html}{news}. The academic group behind the projects has also a number of interesting \href{https://redbellyblockchain.io/Research.html}{research papers}.

\hypertarget{mit_vault}{}\subsubsection*{{MIT Vault}}\label{mit_vault}

\begin{itemize}%
\item Derek Leung, Adam Suhl, Yossi Gilad, Nickolai Zeldovich (MIT CSAIL), \emph{Vault: fast bootstrapping for cryptocurrencies}, Jan 2019, preprint \href{http://people.csail.mit.edu/nickolai/papers/leung-vault-eprint.pdf}{pdf}
\item \href{https://news.mit.edu/2019/vault-faster-more-efficient-cryptocurrency-0124}{news.mit.edu:faster-more-efficient-cryptocurrency}

\end{itemize}
\hypertarget{algorand}{}\subsubsection*{{Algorand}}\label{algorand}

\href{https://www.algorand.com}{Algorand} project, founded by a group at MIT lead by S. Micali, claims 1000 tps and latency of only 5 seconds in a setup with 10000 participants and 500 nodes on testnet world wide. It got 62 M dollars equity funding in 2018 (\href{https://www.the-blockchain.com/2018/10/24/algorand-announces-62m-in-funding-and-appoints-new-executive-team}{news}) and is issuing Algos coins in auction in June 2019, \href{https://www.the-blockchain.com/2019/06/06/mit-professor-silvio-micalis-algorand-foundation-announces-date-for-first-auction}{news}. Undergone security audits from Trail of Bits and NCC. While the first prototype in 2016 has been coded in C++, the full implementation is in Golang, see \href{https://github.com/algorand/go-algorand}{github}. The underlying algorithms are described in

\begin{itemize}%
\item Yossi Gilad, Rotem Hemo, Silvio Micali, Georgios Vlachos, Nickolai Zeldovich (MIT CSAIL), \emph{Algorand: scaling Byzantine agreements for cryptocurrencies}, \href{https://people.csail.mit.edu/nickolai/papers/gilad-algorand-eprint.pdf}{pdf}
\item Jing Chen, Silvio Micali, \emph{Algorand}, \href{https://arxiv.org/abs/1607.01341}{arxiv/1607.01341}
\item github/\href{https://github.com/algobet/kirin}{algobet/kirin} - Official javascript framework of the Digital Asset Platform (DAP) protocol atop the POS/POR consensus mechanism. Kirin is the Quarkonium's first generation constitutional protocols deeply built with the Algorand blockchain
\item S. Gorbounov, \emph{Algorand releases first open-source code: verifiable random function}, \href{https://medium.com/algorand/algorand-releases-first-open-source-code-of-verifiable-random-function-93c2960abd61}{medium}
\item \emph{Announcing full open source availability of the Algorand blockchain} june 12, 2019 \href{https://medium.com/algorand/announcing-full-open-source-availability-of-the-algorand-blockchain-4585f1329348}{medium}

\end{itemize}
\hypertarget{other_projects_which_claim_to_be_very_fast_or_scalable}{}\subsubsection*{{Other projects which claim to be very fast or scalable}}\label{other_projects_which_claim_to_be_very_fast_or_scalable}

\begin{itemize}%
\item \href{https://bitconch.io}{bitconch} claims 120000 TPS
\item \href{https://futurepia.io}{Futurepia} uses Double Delegated Proof of Stake. ``KOLAS (Korea Laboratory Accreditation Scheme) has assessed and certified FUTUREPIA’s Social Media Mainnet transaction speed as 300,000 TPS''.
\item [[EOS]] is a high performance blockchain using [[WebAssembly]] [[virtual machine]] for [[smart contract]]s. \href{https://eos.io}{eos.io} claims speeds up to 300000 TPS. \href{https://eos.io}{eos.io} claims speeds up to 300000 TPS. EOS technical white paper v2 (March 2018) is at github, \href{https://github.com/EOSIO/Documentation/blob/master/TechnicalWhitePaper.md}{md}.
\item NEO ``smart economy'' \href{http://neo.org}{neo.org} claims 1000-10000 TPS with plans to go to 100000 in 2020
\item Ripple \href{https://ripple.com/xrp}{XRP} blockchain has over 1700 TPS in regular usage. They claim to test speeds up to 50000
\item \href{https://devv.io/pages/tech}{devv} algorithm of \href{https://devv.io}{devv.io} uses massive sharding and the claims are to test-support up to 8 million TPS (Jan 2019) \href{https://currencyjournals.com/blockchain/start-up-devvio-claims-its-blockchain-can-handle-8m-transactions-a-second-computerworld}{news}, \href{https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0009/0079/2378/files/2018-09-12_Devv_Whitepaper.pdf?1984954902434967058}{whitepaper} ``Devvio’s approach emphasizes maintaining only representations of value on the blockchain, with non-essential processing occurring off-chain''
\item \href{https://mimblewimble.support}{mimblewimble} cryptocurrency protocol is focused on privacy and also created to be pretty scalable and very secure (even in comparison to bitcoin) with less computer power for PoW, while more suitable for GPUs than ASICs. There are two leading implementations, \href{https://grin-tech.org}{Grin} and \href{https://www.beam.mw}{Beam}. Grin is coded in [[Rust]], see \href{https://github.com/mimblewimble/grin}{github}.
\item \href{https://www.thundercore.com}{thundercore} (see also description at \href{https://medium.com/boxmining/thundercore-explained-breakthrough-scaling-for-ethereum-dapps-8cfb942331ce}{medium}) is EVM-compatible blockchain with some claims on scalability

\end{itemize}
There is a theoretical proposal to scale up by 3 orders of magnitude by the BlockReduce algorithm ``which only segments consistency''. The paper shortly reflects on other approaches

\begin{itemize}%
\item K. J. Kreder III, \emph{BlockReduce: scaling blockchain to human commerce}, \href{https://arxiv.org/abs/1811.00125}{arxiv/1811.00125}

\end{itemize}
[[!redirects high performance DL]] [[!redirects high performance blockchain]] [[!redirects high performance DLs]]



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