nLab coinduction

Idea

Coinduction is dual to induction. It generalises to corecursion.

It is a method of proof which relies on the fact that any two states of the terminal coalgebra for an endofunctor $H$ must be equal if they are indistinguishable under repeated operations of $H$. That is, there are no proper coalgebra quotient objects. Generally, we show the existence of a bisimulation between states of terminal coalgebra, that is a relation between states, such that when the coalgebra function is applied, the respective outputs are still related. Since any bisimulation must be contained within the identity relation, we can then conclude that the states are equal.

Examples

Example

Let $\bar{\mathbb{N}}$ be the set of conatural numbers and take $add\colon \bar{\mathbb{N}} \times \bar{\mathbb{N}} \to 1 + \bar{\mathbb{N}} \times \bar{\mathbb{N}}$. We can then establish a bisimulation between the terms $(n + m)$ and $(m + n)$, from which we can conclude that this addition is commutative. (See p. 52 of Rutten Universal coalgebra: a theory of systems.)

Example

Many theorems of calculus involving formal power series $f(x) = \sum_{n \geq 0} \frac{a_n x^n}{n!}$ are naturally viewed as proofs by coinduction. The collection of power series $k[ [x] ]$ over a field $k$ (say of characteristic $0$) may be viewed as a stream coalgebra $k^\mathbb{N}$, i.e., the terminal coalgebra of the endofunctor $k \times -:\; Set \to Set$, with the coalgebra structure

$$\array{ \langle eval_0, D = \frac{d}{d x} \rangle: k[ [x] ] & \to & k \times k[ [x] ] \\ \sum_{n \geq 0} \frac{a_n x^n}{n!} & \mapsto & (a_0, \sum_{n \geq 0} \frac{a_{n+1} x^n}{n!}) }$$

Thus if we set up a bisimulation $\sim$ between two power series $f, g$, establishing $f(0) = g(0)$ and $(D f) \sim (D g)$, we may conclude by coinduction that $f = g$ (else, $k[ [x] ]/\sim$ would be a proper quotient).

As an illustration: consider a field $k$ of characteristic $0$ and, for $r \in k$, define $(1 + x)^r$ to be the power series expansion of $\exp(r \cdot \log(1 + x))$, where $\exp(x) = \sum_{n \geq 0} \frac{x^n}{n!}$ and $\log(1 + x) = \sum_{n \geq 1} (-1)^{n+1}\; \frac{x^n}{n}$ is the inverse of $\exp(x)-1$. To prove the generalized binomial theorem

$$(1 + x)^r = f(r) \coloneqq \sum_{k \geq 0} \frac{r^\underline{k} x^k}{k!}$$

where $r^\underline{k}$ is the falling power $r(r-1)\ldots (r-k+1)$, we introduce a bisimilarity

$$\sum_{k \geq 0} \frac{r^\underline{k} x^k}{k!}\; \sim\; \exp(r \cdot \log(1 + x))$$

and observe first that the constant coefficients of $f(x)$ and $(1+x)^r$ are both $1$, and that

$$D\left(\sum_{k \geq 0} \frac{r^\underline{k} x^k}{k!}\right) = r \sum_{k \geq 0} \frac{(r-1)^\underline{k} x^k}{k!}$$

(because $r^{\underline{k+1}} = r \cdot (r-1)^{\underline{k}}$) and similarly

$$D\left(\exp(r \cdot \log(1 + x))\right) = r \cdot \exp((r-1) \cdot \log(1 + x))$$

by the chain rule, whence $D(f/r) \sim D((1+x)^r/r)$. Hence $f/r$ is bisimilar to $(1+x)^r/r$, and we conclude in the terminal coalgebra that $f(x) = (1+x)^r$.

See also

• directed (n,r)-graph

• bisimulation

References

• Bart Jacobs, Jan Rutten, A tutorial on (Co)Algebras and (Co)Induction (pdf)

• Davide Sangiorgi, Introduction to Bisimulation and Coinduction, Cambridge Universtity Press (2012) (web)

• Davide Sangiorgi, Jan Rutten (eds.), Advanced Topics in Bisimulation and Coinduction, Cambridge Universtity Press (2012) (web)

Discussion of differential calculus in terms of coinduction is in

• Martin Escardo, Duško Pavlović, Calculus in coinductive form (1998) (web or pdf)

About coinduction in cubical type theory:

• Magnus Baunsgaard Kristensen?, Rasmus Ejlers Møgelberg, Andrea Vezzosi, Greatest HITs: Higher inductive types in coinductive definitions via induction under clocks (arXiv:2102.01969)