quantum algorithms:
While classical mechanics considers deterministic evolution of particles and fields, quantum physics follows nondeterministic evolution where the probability of various outcomes of measurement may be predicted from the state in a Hilbert space representing the possible reality: that state undergoes a unitary evolution, what means that the generator of the evolution is times a Hermitean operator called the quantum Hamiltonian or the Hamiltonian operator of the system. The theoretical framework for describing this precisely is the quantum mechanics. It involves a constant of nature, Planck constant ; some quantum systems with spatial interpretation in the limit lead to classical mechanical systems (not all: some phenomena including non-integer spin are purely quantum mechanical, but the properties depending on their existence survive in the “classical” limit); in limited generality, one can motivate and find the nonfunctorial procedure to single out a right inverse to taking this classical limit under the name quantization.
While quantum mechanics may be formulated for a wide range of physical systems, interpreted as particles, extended particles and fields, the quantum mechanics of fields is often called the quantum field theory and the quantum mechanics of systems of a fixed finite number of particles is often viewed as the quantum mechanics in a narrow sense.
Mathematically, despite the basic formalism of quantum mechanics which is sound and clear, there are two big areas which are yet not clear. One is to understand quantization, in all cases – of particles, fields, strings and so on. The second and possibly more central to nLab is a problem how to define rigorously a wide range of quantum field theories and some related quantum mechanical systems like the hypothetical superstring theory. Regarding that this is a central goal, we also put emphasis on the interpretation of quantum mechanics via the picture which is a special case of a FQFT, and where the time evolution functorially leads to evolution operators.
We discuss some basic notions of quantum mechanics.
Recall the notion of a classical mechanical system: the formal dual of a real commutative Poisson algebra.
A quantum mechanical system is a star algebra over the complex numbers. The category of of quantum mechanical systems is the opposite category of -algebras:
It makes sense to think of this as a deformed version of a real Poisson algebra as follows:
the Poisson-Lie bracket of a Poisson algebra corresponds to the commutator of the -algebra:
the commutative algebra structure of the Poisson algebra coresponds to the Jordan algebra structure of the -algebra, with commutative (but non-associative!) product
With this interpretation the derivation-property of the Poisson bracket over the other product is preserved: for all we have
We thus may regard a non-commutative star-algebra as a non-associative Poisson algebra : a Jordan-Lie algebra. See there for more details.
Given a quantum mechanical system in terms of a star algebra , we say
an observable is an element such that ;
a state is a linear function which is positive in the sense that for all we have .
One can formalize the idea that a quantum mechanical system is like a deformed classical mechanical system as follows:
To every -algebra is associated its poset of commutative subalgebras . Then the corresponding quantum mechanical system is a classical mechanical system internal to the sheaf topos :
The -algebra canonically induces a commuative algebra ;
the (classical) states of in are in natural bijection with the quantum states externally on ;
the (classical) observables of in correspond to the external quantum observables on .
(…details…)
One also says that the internal classical mechanical system is the “Bohrification” of the external quantum system . See there for more details.
Given a -algebra together with a state on it, the GNS construction provides an inner product space together with an action of on and a vector – the vacuum vector? – such that for all the value of the state is obtained by applying to and then taking the inner product with :
If the star algebra happens to be a C-star algebra, then this inner product space is naturally a Hilbert space.
Historically and still often in the literature, such a Hilbert space is taken as a fundamental input of the definition of quantum systems.
Traditionally, Dirac‘s “bra-ket” notation is used to represent vectors in such Hilbert spaces of states, where represents a state and represents its linear adjoint. State evolutions are expressed as unitary maps. Self-adjoint operators represent physical quantities such as position and momentum and are called observables. Measurements are expressed as sets of projectors onto the eigenvectors of an observable.
In mixed state quantum mechanics, physical states are represented as density operators , state evolution as maps of the form for unitary maps , and measurements are positive operator-valued measures (POVM’s). There is a natural embedding of pure states into the space of density matrices: . So, one way to think of mixed states is a probabilistic mixture of pure states.
Composite systems are formed by taking the tensor product of Hilbert spaces. If a pure state can be written as for it is said to be separable. If no such exist, is said to be entangled. If a mixed state is separable if it is the sum of separable pure states. Otherwise, it is entangled.
As for classical mechanics, 1-parameter families of flows in a quantum mechanical system are induced from observables by
In a non-relativistic system one specifies an observable – called the Hamiltonian – whose flow represents the time evolution of the system. (This is the Heisenberg picture.)
We comment on how to interpret this from the point of view of FQFT:
Quantum mechanics of point particles may be understood as a special case of the formalism of quantum field theory. It is interpreted as the quantum analog of the classical mechanics of point particles. Of course, we can take a configuration space of a system of particles looking like the configuration space of a single particle in a higher dimensional manifold.
Remark: related query on the relation between QFT and quantum mechanics (of particles and in general) can be found here.
One may usefully think of the quantum mechanics of a point particle propagating on a manifold as being -dimensional quantum field theory:
the fields of this system are maps where are 1-dimensional Riemannian manifold cobordisms. These are the trajectories of the particle.
After quantization this yields a 1-dimensional FQFT given by a functor
from cobordisms to Hilbert spaces (or some other flavor of vector spaces) that assigns
to the point the space of states , typically the space of -sections (with respect to a Riemannian metric on ) of the background gauge field on under which the particle in question is charged
to the cobordism of Riemannian length the operator
where is the Hamiltonian operator, typically of the form for the covariant derivative of the given background gauge field.
Such a setup describes the quantum mechanics of a particle that feels forces of backgound gravity encoded in the Riemannian metric on and forces of background gauge fields (such as the electromagnetic field) encoded in the covariant derivative .
(This is the Schrödinger picture.)
For an algebra describing a quantum system, def. , a subsystem is a subalgebra (a subobject) .
Two subsystems are called independent subsystems if the linear map
from the tensor product of algebras (the composite system) factors as an isomorphism
through the algebra that is generated by and inside (the smallest subalgebra containing both).
See for instance (BrunettiFredenhagen, section 5.2.2).
Given two independent subsystems , and two states and , then the corresponding product state on is defined to be
There exist states on that are not (convex combinations of) product states. This phenomenon is called entanglement.
See order-theoretic structure in quantum mechanics.
Many aspects of quantum mechanics and quantum computation depend only on the abstract properties of Hilb characterized by the fact that it is a †-compact category.
For more on this see
The following circle of theorems
all revolve around the phenomenon that the “phase space” in quantum mechanics and hence the space of quantum states are all determined by the Jordan algebra structure on the algebra of observables, which in turn is determined by the poset of commutative subalgebras of the algebra of observables. See at order-theoretic structure in quantum mechanics for more on this.
There is also
which says roughly that linear maps between spaces of quantum states are unitary operators (or anti-unitary) already when they preserve norm, hence preserve probability.
Quantum mechanics, as opposed to classical mechanics, is necessary for an accurate description of reality whenever the characteristic scale is sufficiently small. For instance
In chemistry (“quantum chemistry”) the properties of atoms and molecules are derived from quantum mechanics.
In solid state physics the properties of metals etc. are described by quantum mechanics of electron gases.
In particle physics of course, quantum field theory is the appropriate description.
quantum mechanics
The seed of quantum mechanics is sown in
with the recognition of a quantum of “action”: Planck's constant (p. 164)
Quantum mechanics as such originates with:
Werner Heisenberg, Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen, Zeitschrift für Physik 33 (1925) 879–893 [doi:10.1007/BF01328377, Engl. pdf]
Max Born, Pascual Jordan, Zur Quantenmechanik, Zeitschrift für Physik 34 (1925) 858–888 [doi:10.1007/BF01328531]
Paul A. M. Dirac, On the theory of quantum mechanics, Proceedings of the Royal Society 112 762 (1926) [doi:10.1098/rspa.1926.0133]
Paul A. M. Dirac, The physical interpretation of the quantum dynamics, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 113 765 (1927) [doi:10.1098/rspa.1927.0012]
David Hilbert, John von Neumann, Lothar W. Nordheim, Über die Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik, Math. Ann. 98 (1928) 1–30 [doi:10.1007/BF01451579]
Formulating the Born rule:
Max Born, Zur Quantenmechanik der Stoßvorgänge, Zeitschrift für Physik 37 (1926) 863–867 [doi:10.1007/BF01397477]
Max Born, Quantenmechanik der Stoßvorgänge, Zeitschrift für Physik 38 (1926) 803–827 [doi:10.1007/BF01397184]
Max Born, Das Adiabatenprinzip in der Quantenmechanik, Zeitschrift für Physik 40 (1927) 167–192 [doi:10.1007/BF01400360]
Pascual Jordan, Über eine neue Begründung der Quantenmechanik, Zeitschrift für Physik 40 (1927) 809–838 [doi:10.1007/BF01390903]
Introducing the Hilbert space-formulation (and the projection postulate):
Von Neumann’s 1927 Trilogy on the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics (annotated translations by Anthony Duncan) [arXiv:2406.02149]
Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik, Springer (1932, 1971) [doi:10.1007/978-3-642-96048-2]
Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics Princeton University Press (1955) [doi:10.1515/9781400889921, Wikipedia entry]
but see (on von Neumann‘s further reasoning regarding quantum logic and then of von Neumann algebra factors):
Equivalence of the Heisenberg picture and the Schrödinger picture:
Erwin Schrödinger, Über das Verhältnis der Heisenberg-Born-Jordanschen Quantenmechanik zu der meinen, Annalen der Physil 384 8 (1926) 734-756 [doi:10.1002/andp.19263840804]
Carl Eckart, Operator Calculus and the Solution of the Equations of Quantum Dynamics, Phys. Rev. 28 4 (1926) 711-726 [doi:10.1103/PhysRev.28.711]
Introducing the tool of group theory to quantum physics (cf. Gruppenpest):
Hermann Weyl, Quantenmechanik und Gruppentheorie, Zeitschrift für Physik 46 (1927) 1–46 [doi:10.1007/BF02055756]
Hermann Weyl, Gruppentheorie und Quantenmechanik, S. Hirzel, Leipzig, (1931), translated by H. P. Robertson: The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics Dover (1950) [ISBN:0486602699, ark:/13960/t1kh1w36w]
Eugene P. Wigner: Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren, Springer (1931) [doi:10.1007/978-3-663-02555-9, pdf]
Eugene P. Wigner: Group theory: And its application to the quantum mechanics of atomic spectra, 5, Academic
Press (1959) [doi:978-0-12-750550-3]
Early discussion of composite quantum systems and their quantum entanglement:
On the historical orogin of the canonical commutation relations:
Classical textbook accounts:
Paul Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, International series of monographs on physics, Oxford University Press (1930, 1935, 1947) [ISBN:9780198520115]
George Mackey, The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics: a Lecture-note Volume, Mathematical physics monograph series, Benjamin (1963), Dover (2004) [google books]
(including an influential proposal for quantum logic)
James D. Bjorken, Sidney D. Drell: Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, McGrawHill (1964) [ark:/13960/t5fc2v05h, pdf, pdf]
(focus on relativistic particles: Klein-Gordon equation, Dirac equation towards perturbative quantum field theory)
Eduard Prugovecki, Quantum mechanics in Hilbert Space. Academic Press (1971) [ISBN: 9780080874081]
Erhard Scheibe, The logical analysis of quantum mechanics, Pergamon Press Oxford (1973)
(focus on the interpretation of quantum mechanics)
Ola Bratteli, Derek W. Robinson, Operator Algebras and Quantum Statistical Mechanics – vol 1: - and -Algebras. Symmetry Groups. Decomposition of States., Springer (1979, 1987, 2002) [doi:10.1007/978-3-662-02520-8]
James Glimm, Arthur Jaffe, Quantum physics: a functional integral point of view, Springer (1981, 1987) [doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4728-9]
(focus on the path integral in constructive quantum field theory)
Hans Primas, Chemistry, Quantum Mechanics and Reductionism, Springer (1983) [doi:10.1007/978-3-642-69365-6]
(with an eye towards quantum chemistry and interpretation of quantum mechanics)
Anthony Sudbery, Quantum mechanics and the particles of nature: an outline for mathematicians, Cambridge University Press (1986) [pdf, spire:240835]
Karl Kraus, States, Effects, and Operations – Fundamental Notions of Quantum Theory, Lecture Notes in Physics 190 Springer (1983) [doi:10.1007/3-540-12732-1]
(emphasis on effect algebras and quantum operations)
Jun John Sakurai, Jim Napolitano, Modern Quantum Mechanics, Cambridge University Press (1985, 2020) [doi:10.1017/9781108587280, Wikipedia]
More recent textbook accounts:
Paul Busch, Marian Grabowski, Pekka J. Lahti, Operational Quantum Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics Monographs 31, Springer (1995) [doi:10.1007/978-3-540-49239-9]
(perspective of quantum probability theory via POVMs)
Chris Isham, Lectures on Quantum Theory – Mathematical and Structural Foundations, World Scientific (1995) [doi:10.1142/p001, ark:/13960/t4xh7cs99]
Klaas Landsman, Mathematical Topics Between Classical and Quantum Mechanics, Springer (1998) [doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-1680-3]
Robert B. Griffiths, Consistent Quantum Theory, Cambridge University Press (2002) [doi:10.1017/CBO9780511606052, webpage]
Mikio Nakahara, Chapter 1 of: Geometry, Topology and Physics, IOP (2003) [doi:10.1201/9781315275826, pdf]
Serge Haroche, Jean-Michel Raimond, Exploring the Quantum: Atoms, Cavities, and Photons, Oxford University Press (2006) [doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198509141.001.0001]
Ingemar Bengtsson, Karol Życzkowski, Geometry of Quantum States — An Introduction to Quantum Entanglement, Cambridge University Press (2006) [doi:10.1017/CBO9780511535048]
(focus on the geometry of quantum state spaces and culminating in a chapter on quantum entanglement)
Heinz-Peter Breuer, Francesco Petruccione, The Theory of Open Quantum Systems, Oxford University Press (2007) [doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199213900.001.0001]
(focus on open quantum systems)
Teiko Heinosaari, Mário Ziman, The Mathematical Language of Quantum Theory – From Uncertainty to Entanglement, Cambridge University Press (2011) [doi:10.1017/CBO9781139031103]
Nik Weaver, Mathematical Quantization, Routledge (2011) [ISBN 9781584880011]
Thomas L. Curtright, David B. Fairlie, Cosmas K. Zachos, A Concise Treatise on Quantum Mechanics in Phase Space, World Scientific (2014) [doi:10.1142/8870]
(in Weyl quantization)
Paul Busch, Pekka J. Lahti, Juha-Pekka Pellonpää, Kari Ylinen, Quantum Measurement, Springer (2016) [doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43389-9]
(perspective of quantum probability via POVMs)
Klaas Landsman, Foundations of quantum theory – From classical concepts to Operator algebras, Springer Open (2017) [doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51777-3, pdf]
With a focus on the relationship between quantum mechanics and representation theory
Peter Woit, Quantum Theory, Groups and Representations: An Introduction, Springer (2017) [doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64612-1, ISBN:978-3-319-64610-7]
On the interpretation of quantum mechanics:
Lecture notes:
Robert Geroch, Geometrical Quantum Mechanics, University of Chicago (1974) [pdf, pdf]
Uni Bonn, Lecture scripts and Online courses – Quantum mechanics
Valter Moretti, Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics: An Advanced Short Course, Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 13 Supp. 1 (2016) 1630011 [arXiv:1508.06951, doi:10.1142/S0219887816300117]
Greg Kuperberg, A concise introduction to quantum probability, quantum mechanics, and quantum computation (2005) [pdf, pdf]
(with an eye towards quantum probability and quantum computation)
Stéphane Attal, Quantum Mechanics, Lecture 5 in: Lectures on Quantum Noises [pdf, webpage]
(with an eye towards quantum probability and quantum noise)
Further references:
Sean Bates, Alan Weinstein, Lectures on the geometry of quantization AMS (1997) [pdf]
Pierre Cartier, Cécile DeWitt-Morette, Functional integration: action and symmetries, Cambridge Monographs on Mathematical Physics (2006) [ISBN:9780521143578]
(on rigorous path integrals)
Leon Takhtajan, Quantum mechanics for mathematicians, Amer. Math. Soc. (2008) [ISBN:978-0-8218-4630-8]
Michael Movshev, Concepts of Quantum Mechanics (2008) [web]
Franco Strocchi, An introduction to the mathematical structure of quantum mechanics, Advanced Series in Mathematical Physics 28, World Scientific (2008) [doi:10.1142/7038]
Steven Weinberg, Lectures on Quantum Mechanics, Cambridge University Press (2015) [doi:10.1017/CBO9781316276105]
Valter Moretti, Spectral Theory and Quantum Mechanics – Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Theories, Symmetries and Introduction to the Algebraic Formulation, Springer (2017) [doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70706-8]
Valter Moretti, Fundamental Mathematical Structures of Quantum Theory – Spectral Theory, Foundational Issues, Symmetries, Algebraic Formulation, Springer (2020) [doi:10.1007/978-3-030-18346-2]
Jan Perina, Z. Hradil, Branislav Jurčo, Quantum optics and fundamentals of physics, Kluwer 1994
Introduction to mathematical foundations of quantum physics in quantum probability, operator algebra:
Jonathan Gleason, The -algebraic formalism of quantum mechanics (2009) [pdf, pdf]
Jonathan Gleason, From Classical to Quantum: The -Algebraic Approach, contribution to VIGRE REU 2011, Chicago (2011) [pdf, pdf]
Jürg Fröhlich, B. Schubnel, Quantum Probability Theory and the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. In: Blanchard P., Fröhlich J. (eds.) The Message of Quantum Science. Lecture Notes in Physics, vol 899. Springer 2015 (arXiv:1310.1484, doi:10.1007/978-3-662-46422-9_7)
Jürg Fröhlich, The structure of quantum theory, Chapter 6 in The quest for laws and structure, EMS 2016 (doi, doi:10.4171/164-1/8).
Klaas Landsman, Foundations of quantum theory – From classical concepts to Operator algebras, Springer Open 2017 (pdf)
see also
Generalization of the algebraic perspective to quantum field theory is discussed in
for more on this see at AQFT and at perturbative AQFT
Different incarnations of this C*-algebraic locality condition are discussed in section 3 of
relating it to the topos-theoretic formulation in
Aspects of quantum mechanics in category theory and topos theory are discussed in
This discusses for instance higher category theory and physics and the Bohr topos of a quantum system.
The observation that a natural language for quantum information theory and quantum computation, specifically for quantum circuit diagrams, is that of string diagrams in †-compact categories (see quantum information theory via dagger-compact categories):
Samson Abramsky, Bob Coecke, A categorical semantics of quantum protocols, Proceedings of the 19th IEEE conference on Logic in Computer Science (LiCS’04). IEEE Computer Science Press (2004) arXiv:quant-ph/0402130, doi:10.1109/LICS.2004.1319636
Samson Abramsky, Bob Coecke, Abstract Physical Traces, Theory and Applications of Categories, 14 6 (2005) 111-124. [tac:14-06, arXiv:0910.3144]
Samson Abramsky, Bob Coecke, Categorical quantum mechanics, in Handbook of Quantum Logic and Quantum Structures, Elsevier (2008) arXiv:0808.1023, ISBN:9780080931661, doi:10.1109/LICS.2004.1319636
Bob Coecke, De-linearizing Linearity: Projective Quantum Axiomatics from Strong Compact Closure, Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Quantum Programming Languages (2005), Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science 170 (2007) 49-72 [doi:10.1016/j.entcs.2006.12.011, arXiv:quant-ph/0506134]
On the relation to quantum logic/linear logic:
Samson Abramsky, Ross Duncan, A Categorical Quantum Logic, Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 16 3 (2006) arXiv:quant-ph/0512114, doi:10.1017/S0960129506005275
Ross Duncan, Types for quantum mechanics, 2006 pdf, slides
Early exposition with introduction to monoidal category theory:
Bob Coecke, Kindergarten quantum mechanics arXiv:quant-ph/0510032
Bob Coecke, Introducing categories to the practicing physicist arXiv:0808.1032
John Baez, Mike Stay, Physics, topology, logic and computation: a rosetta stone in: New Structures for Physics, Bob Coecke (ed.), Lecture Notes in Physics 813, Springer (2011) 95-174 arxiv/0903.0340
Bob Coecke, Eric Oliver Paquette, Categories for the practising physicist, in: New Structures for Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics 813, Springer (2010) arXiv:0905.3010, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-12821-9_3
Bob Coecke, Quantum Picturalism, Contemporary Physics 51 1 (2010) arXiv:0908.1787, doi:10.1080/00107510903257624
Review in contrast to quantum logic:
and with emphasis on quantum computation:
Generalization to quantum operations on mixed states (completely positive maps of density matrices):
Peter Selinger, Dagger compact closed categories and completely positive maps, Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science 170 (2007) 139-163 doi:10.1016/j.entcs.2006.12.018, web, pdf
Bob Coecke, Chris Heunen, Pictures of complete positivity in arbitrary dimension, Information and Computation 250 50-58 (2016) arXiv:1110.3055, doi:10.1016/j.ic.2016.02.007
Bob Coecke, Chris Heunen, Aleks Kissinger,
Categories of Quantum and Classical Channels, EPTCS 158 (2014) 1-14 arXiv:1408.0049, doi:10.4204/EPTCS.158.1
Textbook accounts (with background on relevant monoidal category theory):
Bob Coecke, Aleks Kissinger, Picturing Quantum Processes – A First Course in Quantum Theory and Diagrammatic Reasoning, Cambridge University Press (2017) ISBN:9781107104228
Chris Heunen, Jamie Vicary: Categories for Quantum Theory, Oxford University Press (2019) [ISBN:9780198739616]
based on:
Chris Heunen, Jamie Vicary, Lectures on categorical quantum mechanics (2012) [pdf, pdf]
Bob Coecke, Stefano Gogioso, Quantum in Pictures, Quantinuum Publications (2023) ISBN 978-1739214715, Quantinuum blog
(focus on ZX-calculus)
Formalization of quantum measurement via Frobenius algebra-structures (“classical structures”):
Bob Coecke, Duško Pavlović, Quantum measurements without sums, in Louis Kauffman, Samuel Lomonaco (eds.), Mathematics of Quantum Computation and Quantum Technology, Taylor & Francis (2008) 559-596 arXiv:quant-ph/0608035, doi:10.1201/9781584889007
Bob Coecke, Eric Oliver Paquette, POVMs and Naimark’s theorem without sums, Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science 210 (2008) 15-31 arXiv:quant-ph/0608072, doi:10.1016/j.entcs.2008.04.015
Bob Coecke, Eric Oliver Paquette, Duško Pavlović, Classical and quantum structuralism, in: Semantic Techniques in Quantum Computation, Cambridge University Press (2009) 29-69 arXiv:0904.1997, doi:10.1017/CBO9781139193313.003
Bob Coecke, Duško Pavlović, Jamie Vicary, A new description of orthogonal bases, Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 23 3 (2012) 555- 567 arXiv:0810.0812, doi:10.1017/S0960129512000047
and the evolution of the “classical structures”-monad into the “spider”-diagrams (terminology for special Frobenius normal form, originating in Coecke & Paquette 2008, p. 6, Coecke & Duncan 2008, Thm. 1) of the ZX-calculus:
Bob Coecke, Ross Duncan, §3 in: Interacting Quantum Observables, in Automata, Languages and Programming. ICALP 2008, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5126, Springer (2008) doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70583-3_25
Aleks Kissinger, §§2 in: Graph Rewrite Systems for Classical Structures in -Symmetric Monoidal Categories, MSc thesis, Oxford (2008) pdf, pdf
Aleks Kissinger, §4 in: Exploring a Quantum Theory with Graph Rewriting and Computer Algebra, in: Intelligent Computer Mathematics. CICM 2009, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5625 (2009) 90-105 doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02614-0_12
Bob Coecke, Ross Duncan, Def. 6.4 in: Interacting Quantum Observables: Categorical Algebra and Diagrammatics, New J. Phys. 13 (2011) 043016 arXiv:0906.4725, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/13/4/043016
Evolution of the “classical structures”-Frobenius algebra (above) into the “spider”-ingredient of the ZX-calculus for specific control of quantum circuit-diagrams:
Bob Coecke, Ross Duncan, §3 in: Interacting Quantum Observables, in Automata, Languages and Programming. ICALP 2008, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5126, Springer (2008) doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70583-3_25
Aleks Kissinger, Graph Rewrite Systems for Classical Structures in -Symmetric Monoidal Categories, MSc thesis, Oxford (2008) pdf, pdf
Aleks Kissinger, Exploring a Quantum Theory with Graph Rewriting and Computer Algebra, in: Intelligent Computer Mathematics. CICM 2009, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5625 (2009) 90-105 doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02614-0_12
Bob Coecke, Ross Duncan, Interacting Quantum Observables: Categorical Algebra and Diagrammatics, New J. Phys. 13 (2011) 043016 arXiv:0906.4725, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/13/4/043016
Relating the ZX-calculus to braided fusion categories for anyon braiding:
Last revised on September 21, 2024 at 11:17:02. See the history of this page for a list of all contributions to it.